Researchers have demonstrated how so-called psychological booster shots can enhance long-term resistance to false information. These interventions or strategies improve memory retention and help individuals recognize misleading information more effectively over time. The study, which was published on 11 March 2025 in Nature Communications, was conducted by a team of experts from the University of Oxford, Cambridge University, University of Bristol, University of Potsdam, and King’s College London.
Understanding So-Called Psychological Booster Shots: How Memory-Enhancing Strategies Reduce False Information Impact and Promote False Information Resilience
Memory and False Information Resistance
False information spreads rapidly through digital platforms and influences public opinion on various issues like climate change and vaccine hesitancy. A team of researchers led by Rakoen Maertens from the Department of Experimental Psychology of the University of Oxford explored ways to inoculate people against false information using different preemptive strategies. These interventions aim to build resilience by making individuals aware of common false information tactics before they encounter false information.
The inspiration for their research came from early studies that suggested memory might play a key role in making inoculation interventions against false information more effective. There are also previous studies that explored the role of memory in influencing the persistence of false beliefs. The problem with these studies is that they did not yet fully apply insights from cognitive science and memory research to strengthen the longevity of these interventions.
Researchers R. M et al. aimed to bridge that aforementioned gap by examining whether memory is a central mechanism in false information resistance and whether interventions could be extended by incorporating so-called booster techniques. They reviewed the literature on false information countermeasures and memory processes and realized that understanding how people forget and retain information could help improve the effectiveness of false information interventions and specific inoculation intervention strategies.
Methodological Approach and Key Findings
The research involved five large-scale experiments with a total of 11759 participants. The goal was to evaluate the effectiveness of different false information-prevention methods and to determine how long their effects lasted. Three types of interventions were tested:
• Text-based Interventions: Participants were asked to read and understand selected pre-emptive messages that explained common techniques used in communicating and spreading false information.
• Video-based Interventions: The same participants are further made to watch and process short educational videos that demonstrate how misleading content or information uses emotional manipulation.
• Gamified Interventions: An interactive game further taught participants to recognize false information by allowing them to create fictional fake news stories or misleading content in a controlled setting.
Nevertheless, after receiving these interventions, participants were later exposed to false information to test their ability to detect and resist false information. The following are the findings:
• Immediate Effectiveness: All three intervention methods were effective in increasing false information resistance immediately after exposure. Participants who underwent any of the three interventions demonstrated a better ability to recognize false information compared to those who did not receive any training.
• Duration of Effectiveness: The effectiveness of text-based and video-based interventions lasted for about a month. It is interesting to underscore the fact that the game-based intervention lost its effectiveness more quickly. This suggests that different intervention methods have varying levels of long-term impact.
• Memory-Enhancing Boosters: Follow-up interventions that reinforced the original lessons helped sustain false information resistance over time. Participants who received memory-enhancing boosters retained their ability to detect false information for a significantly longer period. These boosters acted as reminders that reinforced the knowledge gained from the initial intervention.
• Impact of Motivational Boosters: Interventions that focused on increasing the motivation of participants to resist false information by emphasizing the dangers of false information did not improve long-term resistance. This suggests that memory retention, rather than motivation alone, plays an important role.
• Scalability of Interventions: Large-scale implementation is possible and easier because text-based, video-based, and gamified approaches were all initially effective. Public awareness campaigns can use either or a combination of these formats depending on the target audience while maintaining similar outcomes.
Implications and Future Research Directions
Findings from the study suggest that false information interventions should include memory-enhancing techniques to increase long-term effectiveness. Researchers propose integrating these strategies into education and digital literacy programs. Policymakers and social media platforms could use these findings to implement large-scale false information prevention campaigns.
Moreover, by understanding how these psychological booster shots work, other researchers with similar research interests can design better interventions that help individuals retain critical thinking skills over time. This approach could significantly improve public resilience against false information and enhance the effectiveness of educational initiatives in the digital age.
FURTHER READING AND REFERENCE
- Maertens, R., Roozenbeek, J., Simons, J. S., Lewandowsky, S., Maturo, V., Goldberg, B., Xu, R., and van der Linden, S. 2025. “Psychological Booster Shots Targeting Memory Increase Long-term Resistance Against Misinformation.” In Nature Communications. 16(1). Springer Science and Business Media LLC. DOI: 1038/s41467-025-57205-x